Training & Behavior
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Controversy There is much controversy about what is the most effective way to train a dog. Some dog trainers, such as Victoria Stilwell, are said to be 'positive trainers' as they mostly use positive reinforcement to elicit, motivate, and change behaviors. An opposing camp comes from 'traditional' trainers, such as William Koehler and Diane Baumann, encourage the use of punishment, often a physical stimulus used to regain the waning attention of the dog. Similarly, there are dominance trainers, such as Cesar Millan, who believe all animals have an innate desire to dominate others, and that this dominating behavior needs to be overcome by owner leadership. In reality, many trainers use all quadrants of operant conditioning in their training, and so use both reinforcement and punishment throughout their training. Kinds of training Basic training classesMost dogs live with people who want them to behave in ways that make them pleasant to be around, keep them safe, and provides for the safety of other humans and pets. Dogs do not figure out basic obedience on their own. The fundamental rule that must be remembered is that one should never apply human standards of society onto the dog with the assumption that the dog will understand. The hardest part of training is communicating with the dog in a humane way that the dog understands. However, the underlying principle of all communication is simple: reward desired behavior while ignoring or correcting undesired behavior. Basic pet obedience training usually consists of teaching animals to behave on cue. Common behaviors are: Sit Down Stay Recall ("come", "here" or "in") Close (or loose-leash walking) Heel Up (standing up without jumping) Toilet training Corrections are a form of punishment. Corrections can be physical (i.e. leash correction) or mental (i.e. withdrawing a reward). The dog's personality, the behavior, and the importance of the correct behavior should all be taken into account in using corrections with your dog. In a nutshell, negative corrections should only be used to eliminate a behavior and positive rewards to repeat a behavior. Professional dog trainers train the dog's owner to train his or her dog. To be most effective, the owner must use and reinforce the techniques taught to the dog. Owners and dogs who attend class together have an opportunity to learn more about each other and how to work together under a trainer's guidance. Training is most effective if all those who handle the dog take part in the training to ensure consistent commands, methods, and enforcement. Classes also help socialize a dog to other people and dogs. Training classes are offered by many kennels, pet stores, and independent trainers. Group classes may not be available until the puppy has completed all of its vaccinations (around 3 – 4 months of age). Some trainers offer puppy socialization classes in which puppies can enroll immediately after being placed in their permanent homes as long as disease risk is minimal and puppies have received initial vaccinations. In most cases, basic training classes accept only puppies who are at least 3 to 6 months old. It's recommended to start training as soon as the puppy comes into your home. Puppies may also be trained individually by the trainer visiting the dog's home beginning as early as 8 weeks. A puppy requires discipline, consistency, and the patience of its owner. The puppy training phase is integral in raising a healthy and happy dog and keeping a safe and fun home environment. Dogs are expressive and may communicate needs by biting, whining, and getting fidgety. Changing one's own conduct may be effective in changing a puppy's behavior. House training is an important issue for puppies. Various methods of house training will work although the key is to be consistent. With regularly enforced rules, litter box, crate, or paper training, it can be accomplished. Advanced training classes This type of training is more complex and usually suitable for dogs who have completed level one (basic training) or an equivalent level of adult dog training classes. Individualized training This type of training is ideal for dogs that have an urgent or unique training problem such as fear, hyperactivity, aggression (and other related problems), separation anxiety, biting, excessive barking, insecurity, destructive behaviors, walking difficulties, and inappropriate elimination. This type of training would normally be undertaken where the problem naturally occurs rather than a classroom situation. Individualized puppy training can be effective in encouraging socialization and play with their peer group. Popular advocates of this theory include Victoria Stillwell and Ian Dunbar. Specialized trainingDogs are also trained for specific purposes, including: Detection dogs Assistance dogs Herding dogs and livestock guardian dogs Hunting dogs Police dogs Search and rescue dogs Guard dogs
Guard animal training Many companion animals exhibit a natural social system of territorial behavior and companion protection. Guard dogs receive specialized training in order to protect people or property and are not intended to be companion animals. Training these dogs involves making sure they are able to both protect and be called off on a single command from their master and that they do not eat treats offered by unknown people. The western method aka Koehler Method, developed by William Koehler, a military dog trainer and animal trainer for Walt Disney productions involves understanding the dog's Pattern of Learning and knowing how to shape, correct, and reinforce desired behaviors. Styles of training Two major styles used by dog trainers are positive reinforcement (reward) and negative reinforcement (punishment). Positive reinforcement The positive reinforcement practice is a basic operant conditioning technique that rewards dogs for responding accordingly to the trainer's commands. Rewards often come through food or verbal praise or other types of positive reinforcers, such as a tug toy or ball, social interaction with other dogs, or the owner's attention. The more rewarding a dog finds a particular reinforcer, the more work he will do to obtain the reinforcer. Some trainers go through a process of teaching a puppy to strongly desire a particular toy, in order to make the toy a more powerful positive reinforcer for good behavior. This process is called "building prey drive", and is commonly used in the training of Narcotics Detection and Police Service dogs. The goal is to produce a dog who will work independently for long periods of time, in the hopes of earning access to its special toy reward. Benefits B.F. Skinner, responsible for the theoretical constructs of reinforcement and behaviorism, was partial to the benefits of positive reinforcement in providing a lasting change to behavior. Studies suggest that there is a link between the use of reward-based methods and obedience in pet dogs as well as Search and Rescue (SAR) dogs. This method also helps reduce the stress of veterinary procedures(Reinhardt et al., 1990; Turkkan, Ator, Brady, & Craven, 1990); and reduces fear and attention-seeking behavior in dogs. Techniques Conditioned Reinforcer – this is an auditory signal repeatedly paired in conjunction with a primary reinforcer like food. A common conditioned reinforcer is the clicker, or a verbal word, such as "good". This reinforcer becomes more valuable as the training progresses. Shaping or Successive Approximation - shaping is the process of actually teaching the behavior in small steps until the desired behavior is satisfactorily achieved. Desensitization - this is considered an effective training tool that can help the dog tolerate frightening or uncomfortable stimuli. The process consists of pairing positive rewards with the object, person, or situation that causes fear. Consistent exposure to the feared object allows the animal to become less stressful, thereby becoming "desensitized" in the process. Criticisms One way that critics challenge Positive Reinforcement is on the grounds that it causes additional expenses to the owner and that the dog has the potential to become overweight due to overeating. However, trainers insist treats are used consistently during the initial stages of training but after a period of time rewards are given intermittently. Positive reinforcement can also manipulate an animal to show both desirable and undesirable behavior depending on its experience. For example, dogs who are fearful and shy to begin with, may equate hugging as a form of reward which may make them more shy and fearful in the process. Another major criticism is that reinforcements only become associated with the trainer, which will motivate the dog to act only when the trainer is around therefore effective results can only be achieved if everyone reinforces the dog's training; otherwise, training will be unsatisfactory and short-lived. Negative reinforcement Negative reinforcement, a concept also referred to as dominance theory assumes that animals misbehave because they are striving for higher rank and the best way to change their undesirable behaviors is by applying force. One of the leading advocates of dominance theory is Cesar Millan. Benefits Studies show that punishment has its place in dog training when combined with positive reinforcement, such as rewards; and a majority of owners still use a combination of rewards and punishment when training their dogs. Punishment-based methods is often employed by owners training dogs not to chew undesirable objects and to prevent dogs from stealing objects. Techniques Behavior corrections are only effective when paired with teaching the dog desired performance and tend to be ineffective unless the dog is taught how to avoid the negative correction and achieve a reward for positive performance. Corrections should only be administered as appropriate for the dog's personality, age, experience and physical and emotional condition. Verbal Reprimands - assume a strong, powerful voice and sound mad when you say NO otherwise the dog will learn that "no" is simply a warning word Automatic Corrections - an example of automatic correction is when you forcefully pull a dog's collar when they are not heeling appropriately Escape Training with Remote Collar - these electronic collar devices will, over time train a dog to know the boundaries of the area and remain within it otherwise a small electrical shock or strong vibration will be administered via the collar. Escalating Corrections - this involves understanding what is motivating your dog and knowing at what level the correction should be administered to be effective without negatively impacting its personality Avoidance Corrections - these may be used when attempting to train a dog to avoid a certain location or item, like the family furniture Pack Behavior Corrections - these types of corrections are used when a dog is displaying dominant or aggressive behavior and can be administered using a dominant dog collar or remote training device Criticism The concepts of "pack" and "dominance" originated in the 1940s and were later popularized by the Monks of New Skete in the 1970's. The theory states that "dogs are wolves" essentially because they come from the same species and since wolves live in hierarchical packs where an alpha male rules over everyone else, then humans must dominate dogs in order to modify their behavior. Recent studies have shown that wolves in the wild actually live in nuclear families where the father and mother are considered the pack leaders, and their offspring’s' status depends on their birth order which does not involve fighting to attain a higher rank, because the young wolves naturally follow their parents' lead. Animal behaviorists assert that using dominance to modify a behavior can suppress a dog's aggression without addressing the underlying cause of the problem. This can exacerbate the problem and increase their fear, anxiety, and aggression. Often, pets who are subjected to repeated threats may react with aggression not because they are trying to be dominant, but because they feel threatened and afraid. Factors Communication Fundamentally, dog training is about communication. From the human perspective, the handler is communicating to the dog what behaviors are correct, desired, or preferred in different circumstances and what behaviors are undesirable. A handler must understand communication from the dog. The dog can signal that he is unsure, confused, nervous, happy, excited, and so on. The emotional state of the dog is an important consideration in directing the training, as a dog that is stressed or distracted will not learn efficiently. According to Learning Theory there are four important messages that the handler can send the dog: Reward or release marker Correct behavior. You have earned a reward. Keep going signal (KGS) Correct behavior. Continue and you will earn a reward. No reward marker (NRM) Incorrect behavior. Try something else. Punishment marker Incorrect behavior. You have earned punishment. Using consistent signals or words for these messages enables the dog to understand them more quickly. It is important to note that the dog's reward is not the same as the reward marker. The reward marker is a signal that tells the dog that he has earned the reward. Rewards can be praise, treats, play, or anything that the dog finds rewarding. Failure to reward after the reward marker diminishes the value of the reward marker and makes training more difficult. The meanings of the four signals are taught to the dog through repetition, so that he may form an association by classical conditioning so that the dog associates the punishment marker with the punishment itself. These messages may be communicated verbally or with nonverbal signals. Mechanical clickers are frequently used as a reward marker, as are the words "yes!" or "good!". The word "no!" is a common punishment marker. "Whoops!" is a common NRM. A KGS is commonly a repeated syllable (such as "g-g-g-g-g" or a drawn out word such as "gooooood".) Hand signals and body language also play an important part in learning for dogs. Some sources contend that the most effective marker is the human voice. Dogs do not generalize commands easily. A command which may work indoors might be confusing out-of-doors or in a different situation. The command will need to be re-taught in each new situation. This is sometimes called "cross-contextualization", meaning the dog has to apply what's been learned to many different contexts. Understanding Training a dog takes time and patience. However, with clear and consistent communications, canines will begin to understand what their trainer wants fairly quickly. This corresponds to Animal Cognition- the mental capacity of non-human animals. The dog takes in odors, sights, and sounds to remember something it has been taught. For example, when the trainer says “sit,” there should be a set tone and a hand motion. After the dog has experienced seeing and hearing this routinely, along with obtaining the muscle memory, the action of “sitting” becomes an image set in their minds. The next time the trainer says “sit” with the same tone and motion, the dog receives an image showing it the action and is, therefore, able to sit. Clarity while demanding what a canine does is also of great importance. The dog associates the words the handler says with not only the tone, but also with the sound of the letters in each word. “Sit” ends with a strong “T,” while “Stay” ends with a drawn out vowel sound. The canine does not understand the difference between consonants and vowels, but the sound associated with the words, along with the handler’s tone, allows the dog to associate an auditory element to each command. In return, the canine is able to recall the commands due to the words’ unique connection to the dog's mental and auditory senses. Tricks Dog on hind legs Many dog owners teach their dogs tricks. This serves several purposes. It develops a stronger relationship between the dog and human, it provides entertainment, and it engages the dog's mind, which can help to alleviate problems caused by boredom. Some common tricks that dogs are trained to do are: Beg Shake hands Play dead Speak (bark) Spin in a circle Crawl along the ground A number of variations of retrieve
The existence and nature of personality traits in dogs have been studied (15,329 dogs of 164 different breeds) and five consistent and stable "narrow traits" identified, described as playfulness, curiosity/fearlessness, chase-proneness, sociability and aggressiveness. A further higher-order axis for shyness–boldness was also identified. Applicable research on grey wolves Dr. David Mech of the University of Minnesota, who has studied wolves in their natural habitat, claims that much of what is widely believed about wolf packs is mistaken. From observations of wolf packs on Ellesmere Island over more than a decade, he claims that natural wolf packs are not at all similar to those formed in captivity by unrelated wolves. He attributes many of the misconceptions about wolf packs to generalizations from these unnatural packs in captivity, and equates this to erroneous inferences we might draw from generalizing human behavior from studying refugee camps. Dr. Mech argues that the natural wolf pack is typically a family, with a breeding pair of adult wolves and their offspring. In such cases, the terms "alpha" and "dominant" are less appropriate than "parent." Of course, the parent wolves are both "alpha" and "dominant" (by definition), but he argues that these terms are misleading because they imply that a pack of wolves typically include multiple families and that the members assume a place in a linear hierarchy. A wolf pack should not be seen as a tribe of individuals who have an established place in a hierarchy until a younger dog usurps the role. Rather, a wolf pack should be seen as a family unit, with young wolves of age dispersing into new territories of their own, to find other wolves and begin their own family units. Mech also states that dominance is rare in wild wolves, and does not arise from sexual competition. Because young wolves usually disperse before age two, and almost always before age three, there is little sexual tension within a pack. Instead of "dominance" and "submission," he uses the terms "assertiveness" and "passiveness" to reflect the role of the wolf in the pack. Dominant breeding pairs led the pack most of the time (71%), and initiated most new behaviors (70%). Leadership behavior in subordinate pack members tended to be followed by dispersion. Dominance and submission Properly socialized dogs can interact with unfamiliar dogs of any size and shape and understand how to communicate.It is believed by some that dogs establish a dominance hierarchy through aggressive play and roughhousing along a continuum of dominance and submission,[citation needed] although the concept of social hierarchies in dogs is unproven and controversial. It is important for successful socialization that puppies participate with their littermates in learning to relate to other dogs. Dogs learn to successfully relate to other dogs by keeping the peace, rather than by constantly fighting to reestablish this hierarchy. Dominance behavior Although dogs are commonly characterized in terms of their dominance (e.g., "Fido is the alpha."), there is some controversy as to whether dominance is a stable personality trait. In wild wolf packs, displays of dominance have been observed to include "licking up," which involves essentially begging for food; "pinning," in which the dominant dog appears to threaten another, which shows submission by rolling over; "standing over"; territorial marking; and more passive expressions of body language, including holding the tail and ears erect, looking directly at other dogs, circling and sniffing other dogs, growling if the other dog moves. Submissive displays mirror dominant displays and include adopting a posture that is physically lower than other dogs, such as crouching, rolling over on the back and exposing the abdomen, lowering the tail (sometimes to the point of tucking it between the legs), flattening of the ears, averting the gaze, nervously licking or swallowing, dribbling of urine, and freezing or fleeing when other dogs are encountered. In wolves, recent research has indicated that dominant behaviors have been misinterpreted as personality traits that determine the inidividual's place in a linear hierarchy in the pack. In contrast, Mech (see recent research, below) argues that packs are family units, and that the "alpha" of a pack does not change through struggles for dominance. Rather, he argues that the family unit serves to raise the young, which then disperse to pair up with other dispersed wolves to form a breeding pair, and a pack of their own. This model undermines the popular conception of dominance in wolf social behavior. Research on canine familiaris has also questioned whether dominance is a personality trait. Svartberg and colleagues (2002) gathered behavioral data from 15,000 dogs of 164 breeds in attempt to identify major personality traits. In an approach similar to those used in humans, the authors performed a factor analysis of their data, and identified five major traits: "Playfulness," "Curiosity/Fearlessness," "Chase-proneness," "Sociability," "Aggressiveness." A similar analysis by Goddard and Beilharz (1985) revealed two major factors in social behavior: "Confidence," and "Aggression–dominance." These studies suggest that dominance, per se, may not be a personality trait. Rather, underlying personality traits such as aggressiveness, confidence and curiosity may affect the prevalence of dog behaviors that are viewed as dominant. Human attachment A Pomeranian as a recipient of human interaction during Christmas.Research has shown that there are individual differences in the interactions between dogs and their human masters that have significant effects on dog behavior. For instance, Topal and colleagues (1997) have shown that the type of relationship between dog and master, characterized as either companionship or working relationship, significantly affected the dog's performance on a cognitive problem-solving task. They speculate that companion dogs have a more dependent relationship with their owners, and look to them to solve problems. In contrast, working dogs are more independent. Behavior when isolated Dogs value the companionship of the others in their "pack" and are sometimes distressed if they are separated from it. Typical reactions when a dog is separated from the pack are barking, howling, digging, and chewing. These activities may distress humans when they need to leave dogs alone for a period of time. However, this behavior, called separation anxiety, can be overcome with training, or at least decreased to the point where it becomes manageable. If young puppies are habituated to periods alone from an early age, this can normally be prevented entirely. Dogs are also crepuscular, meaning their natural period of peak activity is dawn and dusk,[5] and may be content to rest during the day and night (because of this trait, domestic dogs are more likely to show barking and chewing activity at times when people are leaving to or returning from work. Some owners struggling to deal with this problem resort to devocalization, a controversial practice considered cruel by animal advocates and outlawed in many countries. Dog play From a young age, dogs engage in play with one another. Dog play is made up primarily of mock fights. It is believed that this behavior, which is most common in puppies, is training for important behaviors later in life. Research on puppy play has shown that puppies do not engage equally in both dominant and submissive roles in fights; rather, puppies will tend to start play fights with weaker puppies they believe they can dominate. Additionally, puppies will intervene in play engaged by other pairs. In these situations, the puppies overwhelmingly aid the dominant dog. Puppies do not show reciprocity in interventions, suggesting that they prefer to be dominant in a fight, and are being opportunistic in the short-term. In the long-term, intervention may aid the puppies in learning coordination. A common behavior among domesticated dogs is chasing their own tails. Researchers are not completely certain why dogs chase their own tail, however some research studies found a link between tail-chasing and high cholesterol. A study found that when dogs experience an increase in activity of hormones tied to the "fight or flight" response, it causes dogs to chase their tails more often.
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